Timeliness reflects the length of time between their availability and the event or phenomenon they describe, but considered in the context of the time period that permits the information to be of value and still acted upon. In almost all countries, the differential between SMEs and large enterprises was approximately 30percentage points. 47, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/302b12bb-en. The DS&R legislation is based on the recognition that greater sharing of data can lead to more efficient and effective government services for citizens, better informed government programmes and policies, greater transparency around government activities and spending, economic growth from innovative data use, and research solutions to current and emerging social, environmental, and economic issues. [39] Johnson,P. etal. The result was the Privacy and Security Principles for Farm Data (Ag Data Transparent, 2016[76]), signed by 39 organisations as of 1 April 2016 (see Section 5.2 for the principles). the transfer of data from a source system to a target system using data formats that can be decoded on the target system. [4] Information Commissioners Office (2018), Monetary Penalty Notice to Facebook Ireland Ltd, https://ico.org.uk/media/action-weve-taken/mpns/2260051/r-facebook-mpn-20181024.pdf. Where the rights and interests of third parties are involved (e.g. Notes: Data specialists are defined by ISCO-08 codes 212 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians and 252 Database and network professionals. (2007), Know Thy Sensor: Trust, Data Quality, and Data Integrity in Scientific Digital Libraries. However stewardship refers to a management function and not to the underlying ownership rights (or lack thereof). This is the case with data portability, which, in the case of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), gives data subjects the right to receive the data provided in a structured, commonly used and machine-readable format, and to transmit those data to another controller (see subsection Data portability in Chapter 2). There is a mind-blowing amount of hype generated for the future of Data Science in the modern generation. However, the concept of data ownership is used in different contexts with a different meaning.34 The rights to control access, copy, use and delete data what can be seen as the main rights associated with data ownership are affected by different legal frameworks differently. This is confirmed by available evidence suggesting that data breaches have increased with the collection, processing and sharing of large volumes of personal data (OECD, 2017[3]). 5. Optimize and Improve Business Processes Big Data can be essentially considered as a source of competitive for business organizations. [29] OECD (2015), Health Data Governance: Privacy, Monitoring and Research, (policy brief), OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/Health-Data-Governance-Policy-Brief.pdf. (2007). [17] European Commission (2015), Data protection. right to restriction of processing, right to data portability) (Banterle, 2018[81]; Drexl, 2018[82]; Purtova, 2017[83]). 141-146, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejhg.2014.71. the privacy rights of individuals and the IPRs of organisation and individuals), applying risk management typically requires defining the proportionate level of risk acceptable to all relevant stakeholders and treating the risk accordingly based on a full risk assessment. [31] OECD (2016), Declaration on the Digital Economy: Innovation, Growth and Social Prosperity (Cancn Declaration), OECD, Paris, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0426. The remaining five include: 1. Disadvantages: This type of processing is more expensive and complex. The OECD (2012[51]) Quality Framework and Guidelines for OECD Statistical Activities defines data quality as fitness for use in terms of user needs: If data is accurate, they cannot be said to be of good quality if they are produced too late to be useful, or cannot be easily accessed, or appear to conflict with other data. In other words, even if data are of good general quality, their use can lead to wrong results if the data are irrelevant and do not fit the business or scientific questions they are supposed to answer.25. In fact, most privacy regulatory frameworks give data subjects particular control rights over their personal data, which may interfere with the right to exclusive use of an asset and the full right to dispose of a thing at will (Determann, 2018[67]), typically associated with ownership. [88] BBC (2014), Sony Pictures computer system hacked in online attack, [101] OECD (2011), The evolving privacy landscape: 30 years after the OECD Privacy Guidelines. When combined with enforceable commitments to not re-identify, anonymisation may still have considerable value, even if there are no fail-proof (technical) guarantees of privacy protection. The lack of sustainable funding for open data infrastructures, such as research data repositories, remains a source of concern, in particular for public and scientific data. 31. In April 2017, the Group of Twenty (G20) Ministers18 responsible for the digital economy also recognised in the G20 Digital Economy Ministerial Declaration the importance of promoting interoperability between privacy frameworks of different countries (G20, 2017[32]). To enhance the functioning of existing markets, several challenges need to be acknowledged and, where possible, addressed. Data ethics is highlighted in particular in cases where the collection and processing of personal data will be legal under privacy law, but may generate moral, cultural and social concerns with potential direct or indirect adverse impacts on individuals or social groups. Limited transparency also increases the risk of information asymmetry and thus the risk of consumer detriments. (2014), Commons at the Intersection of Peer Production, Citizen Science, and Big Data: Galaxy Zoo, Oxford Univerty Press. The NDC will also be responsible for the criteria and process for accreditation. The framework poses specific questions to help assess and describe each risk aspect (or safe) in a qualitative way. Hadoop is open-source and uses cost-effective commodity hardware which provides a cost-efficient model, unlike traditional Relational databases that require expensive hardware and high-end processors to deal with Big Data. [65] Scassa,T. (2018), Data Ownership, CIGI Papers No. Some OECD countries have put in place institutional arrangements to balance the risks and benefits of enhanced access and sharing with other legitimate interests and policy objectives. [44] OECD (2015), The evolution of health care in a data-rich environment, in Data-Driven Innovation:Big Data for Growth and Well-Being, OECD Publishing,Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264229358-12-en. What is the disadvantage of data processing? [30] OECD (2008), Recommendation of the Council for Enhanced Access and More Effective Use of Public Sector Information, OECD, Paris, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/public/doc/122/122.en.pdf. Fostering data-related infrastructures and skills would not only help assure that all can benefit from enhanced access and sharing. 20).41. In other words, protection under the SGDR is granted without the requirement for human creativity or originality contrary to IPRs such as copyright. Transborder data flows are not only a condition for information and knowledge exchange, but also a vital condition for the functioning of globally distributed data markets and societies. [15] Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (UK) (2018), Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation Consultation, http://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/consultation-on-the-centre-for-data-ethics-and-innovation/centre-for-data-ethics-and-innovation-consultation (accessed on 1October2018). Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017[24]), Managing the Risk of Disclosure: The Five Safes Framework, www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[emailprotected]/Latestproducts/1160.0Main%20Features4Aug%202017. The Guidelines state that personal data should be relevant to the purposes for which they are to be used, and, to the extent necessary for those purposes, should be accurate, complete and kept up-to-date. Risk management frameworks such as the Privacy Risk Management Framework proposed by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (2017[22]) are being developed to help organisations apply a risk management approach to privacy protection. 3. This is consistent with findings by a study of business practice in Canada funded by Canadas Office of the Privacy Commissioner, which notes that privacy risk management is much talked about but poorly developed in practice (Greenaway, Zabolotniuk and Levin, 2012[23]).16. This situation has motivated a number of government initiatives aiming at providing guidance for business-to-business data-sharing agreements (see subsection Voluntary and collaborative approaches in Chapter 5). [36] OECD (2010), Information Exchanges Between Competitors under Competition Law, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/competition/cartels/48379006.pdf. (2017), The Cost(s) of Geospatial Open Data, [42] OECD (2017), Business models for sustainable research data repositories, [43] OECD (2014), Unleashing the power of big data for Alzheimers disease and dementia research:Main points of the OECD Expert Consultation on Unlocking Global Collaboration to Accelerate Innovation for Alzheimers Disease and Dementia, [44] OECD (2015), The evolution of health care in a data-rich environment, in. These techniques have glaring disadvantages. In certain jurisdictions, cyber-criminal law may have the effects of conferring ownership-like rights to data holders, while data ownership related questions emerging between firms can also be regulated by competition law as discussed above (Osborne Clarke, 2016[68]). These issues are interrelated. The decision to select the best data . A core component of the DIPA is to establish a central analytics hub and issue-specific data analytics units that can integrate and link data assets to solve complex policy issues that cross over multiple portfolios. These in turn typically require the involvement of designated authorities, such as independent research ethics committees, advisory or institutional research boards and the outcomes of their decisions often require sponsor or public access (OECD, 2015[11]). The lack of a common data format across municipalities is a reason why end users (including businesses) may rely on data brokers, instead of using open government data directly. The less data can be linked to an identity (of an individual or an organisation), because it is effectively anonymised and sufficiently aggregated for example, the more it is expected that the data can be freely shared and re-used. Obviously, any causal relationship between the two variables is spurious. In order to balance these benefits with the risks and enhance trust in data sharing and re-use, the issues paper on the DS&R legislation (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet [Australia], 2018[1]) proposes a number of institutional arrangements, including: The Office of the National Data Commissioner (NDC) will provide oversight and regulation of the new data-sharing and release framework, including monitoring and reporting on the operation of the framework and enforcing accompanying legislation. For example, such a doctrine may specify when a railroad must be made available on reasonable terms to a rival rail company or an electricity transmission grid to a rival electricity generator. This trend is expected to accelerate with the deployment of applications such as smart cities and smart transportation, just to name a few. The OECD Privacy Guidelines, for instance, recommend taking a risk-based approach to implementing privacy principles and enhancing privacy protection. Trade secrets encompass confidential business and technical information and know-how that a firm makes reasonable efforts to keep secret and that has economic value as a result (OECD, 2015[78]).37 Trade secrets may protect the information conveyed by data, but only under some conditions, the most important one being that the information must be kept secret.38 Not all data can thus be protected as trade secret. Data Sharing and Reuse in the Long Tail of Science and Technology, PLoS One 8(7), http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067332. Recognising and responding to the ethical dimension of research is a fundamental part of the research governance process (OECD, 2016[10]). Also, many organisations still tend to approach privacy solely as a legal compliance issue. [58] Federal Trade Commission (US) (2014). Data Redundancy and inconsistency. Since data are in principle non-exclusive goods for which the costs of exclusion can be high, there is the possibility that some may free ride on others investments. For Luxembourg data are 2015 instead of 2011. In many cases complementary investments are needed in metadata, data models and algorithms for data storage and processing, to secure information technology infrastructures for shared data storage, processing, and access.29 The overall total up-front costs and spending can be very high. Lack of control over data is perceived as a major issue for both organisations and individuals. This was recognised by the G7 ICT and Industry Ministers in Turin in September 2017, where ministers stated that open public-sector data, as well as market-based approaches to access and sharing of data are important to foster innovation in production and services, entrepreneurship and development of SMEs (G7 Information Centre, 2017[54]). Its objective was to create recommendations that would safeguard consumer trust without creating unnecessary burdens for companies or stifle innovation. (2014), Agricultural Firms, Farm Groups Strike Deal on Crop Data, http://www.wsj.com/articles/agricultural-firms-farm-groups-strike-deal-on-crop-data-1415854870. [84] Hess,C. and E.Ostrom (eds.) This view has been supported by Frischmann (2012, p.161[53]), who notes: There is a mistaken tendency to believe that any gain or loss in profits corresponds to an equal or proportional gain or loss in investment incentives, but this belief greatly oversimplifies the decision-making process and underlying economics and ignores the relevance of alternative opportunities for investment. [65] Scassa,T. (2018), Data Ownership. The Individual Participation Principle of the OECD Privacy Guidelines, for example, recommends that individuals have the right: a)to obtain from a data controller, or otherwise, confirmation of whether or not the data controller has data relating to him; b)to have communicated to him, data relating to him within a reasonable time; [] and d)to challenge data relating to him []. In June 2016, Ministers and Representatives of 42 countries plus the European Union17 agreed in the OECD (2016[31]) Ministerial Declaration on the Digital Economy (Cancn Declaration) to share experiences and work collaboratively to support the development of international arrangements that promote effective privacy and data protection across jurisdictions, including through interoperability among frameworks. Australias data-sharing and release legislation (DS&R legislation) is one example (Box4.1). While freedom of contract may give stakeholders the ability to construct well-suited contractual arrangements, existing uncertainties may also increase transaction costs, and expose particularly those that are in a weaker position to negotiate fair terms and conditions for data access, sharing and re-use. The concept of essential facilities requires there to be two markets, often expressed as an upstream market and a downstream market. Open data initiatives, for example, are motivated by the recognition that users will free ride on the data provided, and in so doing will be able to create a wide range of new goods and services that were not anticipated and otherwise would not be produced.30. [24] Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017), Managing the Risk of Disclosure: The Five Safes Framework, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[emailprotected]/Latestproducts/1160.0Main%20Features4Aug%202017. Data Sharing and Reuse in the Long Tail of Science and Technology. However, how to allocate responsibility and how to define the acceptable level of risk, when the rights of third parties may be affected, can be challenging to implement (see section below Trust and empowerment for the effective re-use of data across society below). Coherence implies that the same term should not be used without explanation for different concepts or data items; that different terms should not be used without explanation for the same concept or data item; and that variations in methodology that might affect data values should not be made without explanation. These challenges go beyond the issues of trust, data ownership, and standards discussed above. Besides being accessible and interoperable, data need to be findable. See McInerney v MacDonald, [1992] 2 SCR 138, 1992 CanLII 57 (SCC), available at http://canlii.ca/t/1fsbl (accessed 5 February 2019). In stream processing, data is processed in real time as data enters the system, withno wait time between collecting and processing. For France and Turkey data are 2014 instead of 2011. 41. Batch processing is the execution of a series of jobs in a program on a computer without manual intervention. (ed.) These include the risks of confidentiality and privacy breaches and the violation of other legitimate private interests, such as commercial interests. Lack of data-related skills and competences and poor access to computation and storage capacities can become bottlenecks preventing the effective re-use of data, even where data are made available through enhanced access and sharing. Distributed Database Definition And private and public interests need to be reflected in incentive mechanisms to assure the coherence of these mechanisms. (ed.) This may require that data be catalogued and/or searchable. [79] WTO (1994), Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, WTO, Geneva. Some authors have therefore argued that mandatory access and sharing could end up having anti-competitive effects. A significant share of the global volume of data and its processing will rarely be located within just one national border. These contractual arrangements often can better suit the individual context of data access, sharing and use (freedom of contract). This is coherent with the observation above that information derived from data is context dependent and so are thus the risks associated to data re-use. However, evidence from Privacy Rights Clearinghouse suggests that although the total number of identified incidents may be relatively small compared to other security incident types, their impact is increasing drastically as large-scale data breaches, i.e. 27. The extent to which these restrictions are proportionate to the risks requires a case-by-case assessment that includes human rights and the rule of law, transparency, fair process, and accountability as articulated in the OECD (2011[28]) Recommendation of the Council on Principles for Internet Policy Making. According to Sonys executives, this data breach cost the company at least USD 171 million. 25. Restrictions to cross-border data flows could therefore restrict the functioning of markets and the prosperity of societies by restricting the benefits of sharing and re-use of data, information and knowledge across countries (OECD, 2015[20]). This is especially the case where sensitive data are involved. The control of agricultural data by the major ATPs has led to controversial discussions on the potential harm to farmers from discrimination and financial exploitation and the question of who owns agricultural data (Bunge, 2014[69]; The Economist, 2014[70]; Poppe, Wolfert and Verdouw, 2015[71]; Wolfert, 2017[72]; Sykuta, 2016[73]). Data processing comprises multiple stages, namely the following: Collection Preparation Input Processing Output Storage Virtually any new product is an experience good; however, information is an experience good every time its consumed (Shapiro and Varian, 1999[90]). 22. 18. Lack of common approaches and rules for sharing data across countries, in particular personal and other confidential data, has limited the ability of cross-border data access and sharing. There are several distinct advantages to employing EDP: Speed. The extent to which the data itself, and separately, its arrangement or compilation, or its expression as information, are protected depends on the definition of data and in some cases remains controversial (Determann, 2018[67]; Scassa, 2018[65]). Safe Projects: Is the data to be used for an appropriate purpose? The main disadvantage is that manual processing requires high labor costs, high time consumption, more errors, etc. [] Real-time data [are] data with a minimal timeliness. 3. The Danish government evaluated the groups findings and translated them into concrete policy proposals and priorities (Ministry of Industry, Business and Financial Affairs [Denmark], 2019[13]), such as potential legal provisions that would require statements regarding data ethics policies to be included in annual reports.